Hideyoshi's 1592 WAR WITH KOREA & MING CHINESE

*************DRAFT  12/29/2009*************

Introduction

In this year's "new year" story, we explore Toyotomi Hideyoshi's war with Korea (and the Ming Chinese), which began in 1592 and ended abruptly after Hideyoshi's sudden death in September 1598.  During the war, Hideyoshi's land forces were able to quickly "take" country by land - within two months - but fortunes turned quickly after a serious naval defeat in the third month and the influx of Chinese forces from north that winter.  In the end, the war was a resounding defeat for Japan. As background, we will look at the previous attempts to invade Japan made from Korea in 1274 and 1281, look at some old maps, evaluate the global context within which events were occurring, probe some of Hideyoshi's  strategy concerns and domestic activities.  Story is essential reading for understanding post Meiji restoration imperialism that lead to World War II.  Wally Barker (12/30/2009)

Background

The sengoku jidai (the warring period) was an amazing time in Japan's history.  The period is so often "romanticized" that it is difficult for Japanese people to comprehend let alone westerner.  Most Japanese know that Toyotomi Hideyoshi's "re-unification" of Japan was a continuation of the efforts made by Oda Nobunaga and that by 1590 Japan was a "unified country" again.  The process was sort of sequential with various warlords falling to Hideyoshi forces and his persuasive brand of diplomacy.  Hideyoshi was no doubt an amazing general, but he was also an amazing administrator.  He was able to do for Japan, what most all of his predecessors and mere force could not - restructure and reorganize an entire society.   I am a big fan. 

I want to make two important points about Hideyoshi related to Korea that are either often overlooked or generally misunderstood

Maps of the Day To get a feel for what was happening at this point in history, lets look at the maps of the age to see how people viewed the region.  Below to the left is a 1470 version of an Korean Map with a long name but called the Kangnido for short.  It is a vast improvement over the original 1402 version that seriously misplaced Japan's location and orientation.  Although India, the middle east, Africa and Europe not shown here, they clearly also not proportioned properly in the 1470 version.  The map to the right is a map of Japan printed in a European Atlas in 1598.  With the advent of advanced sailing vessels and a way to protect them (cannons and guns) the world was quickly become know to all.
Korean 1470 Version of the Kangnido	Portuguese 1598 Atlas

July 1587, Japan

Anyway, Kyûshû fell to Hiedyoshi in July 1587, with the Shimazu clan and the Satsuma surrendering.   Oda Nobunaga would have killed them all, but Hideyoshi style was more diplomatic and obtained their pledge of allegiance in exchange for their lives and the return of their lands. 

Up to the time, Kyûshû was an important place in Japanese history.

• Stepping stone to and from Korea, from which the massive influx of people in 2000 years ago.

• "staging area" of the 300 AD "Invasion of Korea by Japan" or the "Invasion of Japan by Korea" depending on ones perspective, national interest and secret hopes.

• A place from which perhaps even the ruling class of Japan in the 3 century AD.

• A place from which significant trade with China and Korea took place.

• Place where the Korean / Mongol Invasions were attempted in 1274 and 1281.

• Place where "large pirate family" based there raids on China and Korea.

• Place where the Portuguese where basing trade (Nagasaki) and Spanish had recently arrived in 1580.

• Finally it was the location from which Hideyoshi could stage and invade Korea.

In 1585, Japan was no doubt were the world most sophisticated user of fire arms.  Japan firearm designs and manufacturing ability at this time was the best in the world.  Furthermore, new techniques in supply and logistics as well as innovation on battle techniques made the Japanese force quite effective.  With regards to firearms, the Chinese had "hand cannon" as early as the late 13th century.  Europe had had the "matchlock" firearm mid-1400s and by the 1500s that weapon was universally used there.  The sophisticated Dutch arquebus, of matchlock design, came into widespread and pivotal use by the Portuguese sailors in their conquest of successive conquests of the African , India, and Malaysia coastal area.   In 1543, the Dutch arquebus gun arrived on Tanegashima, on an island control by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma.  The Japanese quickly began manufacturing them and Shimazu Takahisa used these early versions of Japanese design 6 years later in his battles and conquest of Kyuusuu.  However, it was Oda Nobunaga 30 years later who perfected gun design, manufacturing, logistics, and battle techniques.

• Design - best design in the world.  The  problem of self-extinguishing matches common to most snapping matchlock designs, were almost eliminated.

• Massive Gun Factories.

• Standardized Bullet Sizes.  Unlike the European arquebus, the Japanese version had bores standardized to only a few sizes so that it was easy to mass-produce the bullets. This enabled for bullets to be conveyed to the battlefield in huge quantities so that "the arquebusier" (the operator of the firearm) could be well supplied.

• Steel Technology and Mass Production Techniques.  Swordsmith turn Gunsmith, what more do I need to say. 

Anyone familiar with the the rise of Oda Nobunaga (Hideyoshi predecessor) know how important guns were in Nobunaga's success.   Cleary, Hideyoshi had a level of sophistication in administration and warfare.  However, to venture a War with the Ming Chinese would really make no sense without the cooperation and alliance with Choson's King Sonjo.  While Hideyoshi perhaps had significant advantage on land, there were three things for him to seriously consider

• China had a history of being able to raises (and feed) armies with over a million soldiers.  Confronting such massive armies would need the support of locals (Korea) and made made diplomatic effort to contact Choson's King Sonjo to enlist his support

• The supply chain to engage the Ming would no doubt eventually involve boats.  Hideyoshi was a skilled land warrior.  Hideyoshi began preparations for his grandiose campaign by ordering the construction of 2,000 ships.

• Hideyoshi also had to worry about the Portuguese.  The Portuguese were very effective in conquering most all the territories it had to date come into contact. The African, India, Malaysian Coast was spotted with Portuguese strongholds that they conquered.  The even (with permission of the Chinese emperor) had control of Macau.  The Chinese Ming had granted trading privileges in exchange for them assisting with Pirate Control, a situation that was at  hee moment "out of control"

Global Power

Up to say 1500, most power was regional, albeit sometime these regions were actually quite large.  Vessels were and integral part of this power equation because of the importance in trade and transport of land armies.  The advent of large sailing vessels, cannon, and gun, made the concept of "Global Power" a new new and evolving concept.  Control of the Seas was essential to this and the European powers had an amazing advantage and head start as a result of there mostly naval military technology. 

• In 1492, the Spanish "discovered" the easily exploitable and enslavable people of the Americas.  In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovers the maritime route to India.  In 1500, Portuguese explorer  Pedro Álvares Cabral discover Brazil.  The world was getting closer.

• Soon there after, the Spanish (whom were controlled by Charles V of the the Holy Roman Emperor) and the Portuguese divided control of the world amongst themselves.  The Spanish had "the world to the West";  The Portuguese, "the World to the East" 

• From 1503-1515 — Alonso de Albuquerque, an admiral, secures the monopoly of the Indian ocean and Persian Gulf maritime routes for Portugal.  His forces continued east making "Contact" with Malacca in 1511, China in 1517, Japan in 1543. 

• I would parenthetically note that most Europeans were on a serious mission to find the Spice Island, as the control of spice would make someone richer that control of gold.  Point is that the Portuguese were coming, and while there numbers were not great, they had powerful boats and cannon.

• In the aftermath of the death of Charles V, in 1556, Western Europe fell into three group with significant influence a) the Portuguese b) the Spanish and c) the non Spanish part of Charles V amazing empire. 

• The British in 1556 were not part of the power equation.  The British eventually teamed with the Dutch again the Spanish and  and then being able to demonstrate their naval capabilities by defeating the Spanish armada in 1588. 

In the previous 20 some year prior Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, the world had seen significant changes drive by changes in Naval Warfare.

• In 1571, there was the impressive defeat of the Turks, off the coast of Cyprus, (Battle of Lepanto) where the Spanish fought a fleet of rowing war galleys using lightly armed galleys and relied on boarding tactics as their principal fighting technique. It is interesting to note the Portugal concept of boarding vessels and fighting was already common place amongst Japanese and Chinese pirates in the Yellow sea. 

• In 1588, there was the impressive defeat of the powerful Spanish Armada by the British whom had "new technology"

Let explore new British Advantage.  The British ship innovation were

• heavy cannon mounted low on the cargo deck that fired through gun ports in the hull.  Heavy cannon low on the boat meant the boat did not have as high center of gravity.  Hence, you could add more and heavier guns without fear of capsizing. 

• the removal of the elevated and ornate decks and spaces in the front and rear.  Besides lowering the boats center of gravity (a useful naval architecture goal) this allowed larger and more efficient use of sail.. 

The1588 victory of the British over the Spanish marked the beginning of a new era.  An age dominated by the use of the heavily-armed, larger sail-powered ships where it was incumbent of the captain to avoid close combat.  

Anyway, Hideyoshi would not really be aware of this event as it was actually happening at the same time.  However, the Portuguese with powerful but different ships were potential threat enough.

Going back to my "imaginary paraphrasing of Hideyoshi's "pitch"" to reluctant to surrender warlords, I think that if Hideyoshi somehow incorporated the concept of "a new type of threat", "one never seen by Japanese" was coming, this improve his argument for unification.  It is also confirmed by Hideyoshi subsequent treatment of the Portuguese which which we will see in a bit was to expel them..

Portuguese

• Portuguese had a history of conquering and enslaving people and using them in there factories

• The Portuguese were also had a well organized "church" or clergy, that function like a government. 

• After arriving in Japan, the Portuguese were allowed by the local daimyo to run Nagasaki (since 1580).  Now Hideyoshi was in control.

• Those who know world history well know that the Portuguese and the Spanish had devised the world in half.  One this side of the world, the actually line of division was note rally know and with regard to the Spice Island way to the south, fiercely disputed.

• In 1584, the with the Spanish arrived in Kyuushuu (Hirako).  Matsuura (daimyô of Hirado) dislike the Portuguese Jesuits and but seemed like the Spanish because they were not  so religiously motivated.  Hirako because a Spanish friendly port beginning in 1584 and began welcoming and receiving Spanish traders and non-Jesuit missionaries.   SEE STORY ABOUT CHARLES THE V; THE DUTCH CONNECTION.   

In July 1587, Hideyoshi made a big effort to assess the situation.  He had numerous meeting meet with Jesuit Vice-Provincial Gaspar Coelhoto, who agreed to provide Hideyoshi with two Portuguese carracks.  The Jesuit also offered to ask Portuguese authorities to assist him in his plan against the Ming Chinese.  Hideyoshi was surprised at the Portuguese willingness to facilitate war.  According to one account, on July 24, 1587, after a night of celebrating and drinking with the Jesuit Vice-Provincial Gaspar Coelhoto, Hideyoshi decided to "interrogated him" regarding Portuguese intentions, but the answers he got did not satisfy him.

Upon returning to Osaka from Kyûshû, Hideyoshi took swift action and issues an order

• expelling all Jesuit missionaries from Japan within twenty days

• officially banning Christianity

• return of control of the port of Nagasaki to local control.  (in Jesuit control since 1580)

Jesuit missionaries were to be collected in Hirado, but the order was not energetically enforced until 1597.

Diplomacy with Choson

In 1587, Hideyoshi still had domestic issues to deal with.  But with regards to his international plans, he making diplomatic effort to recruit the Choson.  It is said the diplomatic relations with Choson  "and Japan" had been inactive since 1555 because of Japanese pirate attack on the Korean coast..  This may be true, but the reality is that during the "Japan's Warring Period" it probably made no sense to conduct diplomacy - what would be the point.  In 1587, the So clan of Tsushima Island was the only daimyo then having formal relations with the Yi court in Seoul. Through the So clan, Hideyoshi sent a short note to King Sonjo with a request that the reciprocal exchange of diplomatic envoys be resumed.  This began the process of years on strained diplomacy.  Hideyoshi wanted Choson assistance with a campaign against the Ming.  In the end King Sonjo, rejected the idea publicly noting that Choson had been friendly with China for centuries and Japan's project was hopeless.  However perhaps Choson saw through Hideyoshi ruse (if it were a ruse).  King Sonjo, still a vassal state of China, informed the Ming Chinese of Hideyoshi's stated plan. 

WAR WITH KOREA

As mentioned above, after getting Kyuushuu under control, Hideyoshi still had much "unifying" to do in East Japan. The Odawara (in East Japan) surrendered August 12, 1590 giving Hideyoshi establish control over all of Japan.  In less than 2 year, Japanese forces would be invading Korea.  The speed at which the country mobilized to this effort make one wonder whether the "Korea Invasion"  was not part of Hideyoshi's "pitch" to warlord reluctant to surrender and join forces:

We will really never know will we but it is fun (at least for me) to speculate. 

As a point of reference, in 1592, Hideyoshi ordered a population census and survey which revealed that Japan had a population of 20 million.  Still only a fraction of China's population.

Anyway, with the Korea King firm rejection of Hideyoshi proposal, Hideyoshi finalized his plans for war.

• New Navy

• Headquarters in Hizen Province on Kyûshû.

• Advanced stage area on  Tsushima Island (half way between Japan and Koreas main coasts)

I will get into the details, but the impressive story is that by mid-June 1592, Japanese troops occupied Seoul and by July 1592 had taken Pyongyang.  In two month, the Japanese had "taken the country".

Hideyoshi mobilized seven fully-equipped divisions, nearly 150,000 men and gathered a fleet of some 700 ships, transport vessels, naval ships and small craft to move his army across the Tsushima Strait.  I find it fascinating the many of the approximately 9,000 seamen who manned the Hideyoshi's fleet were reportedly former pirates.

From their advanced staging area on Tsushima Island, an expeditionary force of three divisions (51,000 men) sailed for the south Choson coast near the end of May 1592:  

• 11,000 men under General Kuroda Nagamasa,

• 18,000 men lead by General Konishi Yukinaga, a Christian born of a merchant family from Sakai, and

• 22,000 men lead by General Kato Kiyomasa, a Buddhist "mustang" officer who rose from the ranks with Hideyoshi

General Konishi reached the port of Pusan a full five days ahead of generals Kato and Kuroda.  Pusan garrison troops manned beachhead defensive positions around Pusan.  A few miles to the North in Tongnae there were also a small civil defnese force.  The Japanese surprised and quickly overwhelmed the badly outnumbered defenders in both Pusan and Tongnae.

Japanese forces were armed with the best handheld firearms known to man and in number not seen outside for Japan.  These forces also had short rang brass cannon. The well trained men with years of combat and logistical experience allowed the men to quickly overcome land forces.  

By messenger and beacon fires, reports of the invasion quickly reached the Yi court in Seoul.  The details of how badly there defense were performing sent King Sonjo's government into panicked.  

The Japanese left Pusan in three separate columns, opening a three-pronged northward assault toward the capital in Seoul.  Detail are interesting but best left for other text.

By May 1592 Seoul was occupied, and the Korean king, King Seonjo and his court, had fled to a city in the northern-most tip of Korea. On June 16, 1592, Konishi Yukinaga took Pyongyang.  

In summary, Japanese easily defeated the Choson on land.  However, on the Sea, the Japanese were suffering significant losses to the Choson Navy who had this "New Iron-Clad Turtle Boats"

NAVAL WAR

Hideyoshi was a land warrior, with little real experience naval battles.   Hence the following issues for Hideyoshi:

• Vessel were not sufficiently armed for battle an "Iron Clad Vessel".

• Techniques for fighting such ship were virtually unknown.

• Lack of naval strategic experience. 

• Lack of local knowledge regarding the coast.

• Perhaps overconfident

In the early phased of the war, Choson Admiral Yi Sun-sin had had some significant success however major confrontation had not yet occurred.  It is difficult to say whether or not Hideyoshi understood Choson Admiral superior position or it's implication, is hard to know for certina.  Perhaps the Choson Admiral was holding back so that Hideyoshi's forces could be lure by overconfidence.  With Japanese force in Pyongyang, re-supply line were extremely extended.      While the Japanese controlled the land, the planned re-supply route up the west coast of the Korea peninsula had not been secured in advance. 

Hideyoshi made a very big mistake by not adjusting adjusting his plans to the new reality of the situation.

Hence, in early July, hundreds of Japanese transport ships escorted by the majority of Hideyoshi's remaining 4 division and fighting ships, set sail along the western passage toward the islands off Choson's southern coast and sailed directly into a trap.

Battle of Hansan Island

Anticipating the Japanese would sail a course to sight Choson's southern islands, Choson Admiral Yi Sun-sin stationed his ships near Hansan Island and lay in wait till the morning of July 9, 1592.   Lots of fun strategy stuff.  In the early stages of battle, Choson destroyed or set fire to more than 70 of Hideyoshi ships.  The Japanese attacked again and lost another 50 vessels.   The Battle of Hansan Island

• destroy a significant portion of the Japanese fleet,

• destroyed the vital material needed by generals Konishi and Kato in the north,

• very convincingly demonstrated to the Japanese the sea lanes around the southwestern tip of Choson would not be available with their Navy as currently equiped.. 

Battle of Pusan Harbor

The Japanese had regrouped and were concentrate in the original invasion invasion point - Pusan Bay.  The Japanese could protect these ships by keeping them anchored close to shore below fortified hill potions where they could take advantage of their superiority in shore guns and use their troops armed with matchlock rifles.

On Sept 1, 1592, Admiral Yi's fleet (166 ships) went into Pusan harbor to attack some 470 enemy ships anchored close to the shoreline and defended by thousands of Japanese on the nearby hills. The Japanese unleashed a nearly continuous barrage of arrows, rifle and cannon fire, yet despite the hail of falling projectiles, Admiral Yi pressed the attack.  The battle lasted a day.  133 Japanese ships were destray and no buy Chosen Vessels.  .

Had Admiral Yi Sun-sin successfully destroy the remaining Japanese vessels, the Japanese would be trapped.  That said,  Admiral Yi seem to understand well his own navy's capabilities and limitations and choose not to continue the battle.

Global Naval Perspective

 There is no doubt that Admiral Yi Sun-sin naval victory were brilliant and prevented Japanese occupation of the Korean peninsula.  He is one of Koreas greatest hero.  His innovative technology and techniques highlight the how changes in naval technology were changing the balance of power.   

Land War & Plunder

Since the Chosen had effective control for the Sea, the Japanese still controlled the land.   Face with new reality, it is said that the Japanese turned to plundering the country.  This was fairly common in wars of this age, but the Japanese did it extremely well.  There were six special units with orders to steal books, maps, paintings, craftsmen (especially potters) and their handicrafts, people to be enslaved, precious metals, national treasures, and domestic animals.    Japanese merchants sold some of their loot to Portuguese merchants anchored offshore and took the rest to Japan.

Difficult to say exactly what decision were made by Hideyoshi.  In the winter of 1592/1593, the Japanese continue to occupied Pyongyang and Souel.  However, without control of the seaway, without a way to get efficiently re-supplied, and the Chinese on there way, my guess is they understood there position was tentative.

China Forces Enter Korea

Up to now, China's involvement and response was very little and very ineffective.  However, in 1593, Ming Chinese Emperor Wanli sent an army under Admiral Li Rusong to recapture the Korean peninsula. Chinese and Korean forces, including Buddhist monks and civilian militia forces, drove the Japanese army from Pyongyang in February 1593, in the middle of the cold winter. Soon thereafter, recaptured Souel.

Truce & "Partial Retreat"

May 1593, Hideyoshi forces negotiate a truce and most of the Japanese troops return home.  However, fortifications are left in four southeast Korean provinces.  General Konishi strongly objection to this "partial retreat" plan and it almost cost him his life.  In the end, based on Hideyoshi's orders did seize positions on a number of capes or promontories along Choson's south coast that were easily defended on the land side and to build entrenched camps.

Diplomacy

Hideyoshi began negotiation with the Chinese regarding

• Hideyoshi wanted Choson Southern Provinces, and normal trade relations with the Chinese.

• Chinese want there standard tributary relationship. 

• The negotiation lasted almost three years with many different exchanges of envoy, but no real progress was ever made.

• Hideyoshi would use this time to mount the next invasion.

Other 1593 events of note:

• May 1593, Christianity continue to make progress in Japan with Franciscan (Spanish) missionaries enter Japan and building churches and proselytize in Kyôto and Ôsaka

• September 1593, Hideyori (Hideyoshi's second and last son) is born to his mistress Yodogimi in Ôsaka. Hideyoshi has not been satisfied with Hidetsugu as he was brutal by nature and had been leading a disreputable life in Kyôto while Hideyoshi was in Kyûshû.

Admiral Yi Sun-sin is Imprisoned

Japan's defeat was quite an embarrassment to Hideyoshi.  Admiral Yi Sun-sin victories cost Japan the lives of 180,000 men.  Unless the Japanese changed tactics, they would not likely see victory.  At this point, the Choson imperial court was highly divided.  Admiral Yi Sun-sin was heavily support by Namin (Southern) faction and Tong-in (Eastern) faction.  However,  So-in (Western) faction holding the dominant position with the Yi court.   Hideyoshi's plan was trick King Song into thinking that the Admiral was involved in some kind of coupe.   In early 1597, that Hideyoshi planted false but believable military intelligence with the Yi court regarding a pending Japanese troop movement by sea.   King Sonjo order to mobilize against this treat, but Admiral Yi Sun-sin did not, probably because he beleive the information false.  Believed to be a traitor - in league with the Southern Korean faction or even the Japanese - he was subsequently arrested and imprisoned on orders from King Sonjo and the Navy was give to a less experience leader from the North.   

Invasion Begin But Bogs Downs // Choson Navy Destroy

In March 1597,  Hideyoshi with General Konishi Yukinaga in command of his new fleet, quietly slipped a force of 100,000 men into the Choson garrison positions already there. 

Remember the Japanese had somehow been continue to occupy certain strategic Early efforts on land to move North proved difficult.  By the fall, after 6 months of effort, they had only proceeded to go as far they had previously time in only two weeks. 

This time however, at Sea, Japan initially dominated. In the first naval confrontation of the war, General Konishi's fleet, completely destroy the most all of the Choson fleet.  

Yi Su-sin is Pardon and Returns

King Sonjo then pardoned Yi Sun-sin and reinstated him as Admiral of the Navy and Commander of the Fleet of the twelve surviving ship.  Admiral Yi's ships won a early victory against a small force of Japanese vessel.  The news of Admiral Yi Sun-sin return weighed heavy on the Japanese.

In the winter of 1597, Japan had 133 ship loaded with supplies, sailing from west then north bound for the Yellow Sea.  October 26, 1597, Yi Sun-sin's twelve ship destroyed 31 Japanese ships, killed their fleet commander and scattered the remaining ships into retreat.  The "Battle of Myongnyang" conceptually put control of the coast back in the hands of the Choson.

Engagement with the Chineses 

Then in early 1598, the Chinese engaged the Japanese in a massive battle near the city of Ulsan.  While the Chinese didn't necessarily win that battle, the result convinced the Japanese land forces that they would not likely be able to break north out from there defensive positions. 

End of the War

Hideyoshi died suddenly of September 18, 1598 and the leadership decided to abandon the endeavor and ordered the return of the troops.

Admiral Yi Sun-sin open water techniques were particularly effective and hence the retreat need to be cautious.  Most of the treat proved uneventful.  However, in mid December last of the troop left Korea in transport ship and protected my a fleet under control of General Konishi, the first to arrive in Choson some six years earlier and now the last to leave.  However, there would be one last battle. 

On December 16, 1598, in the battle of the war, in Chinhae Bay, Admiral Yi led his 12 boat fleet against some 400 Japanese ships heading toward the Tsushima Strait.  Anyway, the Japanese suffered dearly but did escape.  During the battle, Yi Sun-sin (at age 54) was mortally wounded random gunshot.  

The war was over.  The Japanese defeated by the Chinese on land and the Choson on the sea.  Because Japan maintained garrison in southern Korean during this entire period, it is probably best to think of two invasions in 1592 and 1597 it as one military single military effort that lasted 6 years with a 3 years of cease fire and of diplomacy in the middle. 

It has been said that Hideyoshi's dream cost Japan thousands of lives without any measurable material gain whatsoever.  In the near term it is hard to disagree very strongly with this assessment.  However, 280 years later, Japan would again find itself in Korea and fighting with the Chinese.  Those encounters resulted in a decisive victory for the Japanese and significant increase in territory  Hence, from a military point of view, to the extent that the prior defeats contributed to subsequent victories, the the venture was not entirely useless.